Programmed Instruction

     Programmed instruction (PI)  is a systematically planned, empirically established and effectively controlled self-instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the learner through logically sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.
 

History
     Originally introduced in the mid-1950s by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, programmed instruction is a system whereby the learner uses specially prepared books orequipment to learn without a teacher. 
       It was intended to free teachers from burdensome drills and repetitive problem-solving inherent in teaching basic academic subjects like spelling, arithmetic, and reading. Skinner based his ideas on the principle of operant conditioning, which theorized that learning takes place when a reinforcing stimulus is presented to reward a correct response.
 

Introduction
In early programmed instruction, students punched answers to simple math problems into a type of keyboard. If the answer was correct, the machine would advance to another problem. Incorrect answers would not advance. Skinner believed such learning could, in fact, be superior to traditional teacher-based instruction because children were rewarded immediately and individually for correct answers rather than waiting for a teacher to correct written answers or respond verbally. Programmed instruction quickly became popular and spawned much educational research and commercial enterprise in the production of programmed instructional materials. It is considered the antecedent of modern computer-assisted learning.
 

Characteristics of Programmed Instruction
* Programmed instruction is a method or technique of giving or receiving individualized instruction from of variety of sources such as programmed textbook, teaching machine, and computers with or without the help of a teacher.
* In this technique, the instructional material is logically sequenced and broken into suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter called frames.
* For sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer has to pay consideration for the initial or entry behavior of the learner with which it begins and the terminal behavior or the competence which the student is required to achieve.
* In actual operation a frame is presented to the learner. 
* The learner is required to read or listen and then respond actively.

Types of Programmed Instruction
There are three types of this teaching strategy
1.  Linear Programming
2.  Branching or intrinsic style of programming
3.  Mathematics.

Linear Programming:
The linear style of programming was developed by Skinner and his associates (1954).This is also known as the Skinnerian style of programming. The techniques associated with this style of programming are based on the principle that the learner's original response should be gradually altered or shaped until he meets some standard of acceptable performance.
It is based on five fundamental principles
 1.  Small
2. Active responding
3. Immediate confirmation
 4. Self-pace
 5. Student testing
Principle of small steps:
This principle is based on the assumption that a person learns better if the content is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore a programmer while preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter into a properly sequenced and meaningful segment of information called frames. These should be represented one at a time before the learner for responding.
Principle of active responding: 
This principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active .In programmed learning, the learner may remain active if he responds actively to every frame presented.
Principle of Immediate reinforcement:
The psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this principle. One person’s learns better when he is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just immediately after responding. Therefore in a good programme, appropriate consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by informing him about the correctness of his response.
Principle of self pacing:
 Programmed learning is a technique of individualized instruction. It is based on the basic assumption that learning can take place better if an individual is allowed to learn at his own pace. So, a good programme should always take care of the principle of self-pacing. The programming of the material should be done in view of the principle of individual difference and the learner should be able to respond and move from one frame to another according to his own speed of learning.
Principle of student – testing:

For better learning, it is always good to seek continuous evaluation of the learning process. The principle of student testing meets the requirement. In the programmed learning, the learner has to leave the record of his response because he is required to write response for each frame on a response sheet. 
Basic assumptions of linear programming:
1. Activeness
2. Small units
3.Immediate reinforcement
4.Psychological arrangement of contents
5.Freedom
6. Hindrance by errors

Branching or intrinsic style of programming
The branching or intrinsic style (method) of programming was originated by Norman A. Crowder. He defined branching programming as a program which adapts to the needs of the student without the medium of an extrinsic device such as computer. Branching program may be produced for use on a teaching machine or in a book form. The book form is known as a 'scrambled text' because the pages do not follow in a normal sequence.
Principles of branching programme:
1.  Principle of exposition.
2.  Principle of diagnosis.
3.  Principle of remediation.
Principle of exposition
The whole concept is presented to the students so that he can learn the complete information better which is provided in the home page. It serves two purposes: TEACHING & DIAGNOSIS.
Principle of diagnosis
Here the weakness of the learner is identified after exposition and it is assessed whether the learner could learn what the causes are. And then it is modified.
Principle of remediation
If a learner chooses the wrong alternative, the learner has to move to a wrong page where a remedial instruction is provided and the student is directed to return to the home page and he / she is asked to choose the right answer.
Assumptions of Branching Program:
* Needs of the learner
*  Wholeness of the content
*  Meaningful units
* Analysis of the task
*  New material
* No hindrance by errors
* Remediation

Mathematics:
 Retrogressive chain of elements is presented. First step is the master level while the last step is the simplest element.

Suggestion for this Teaching Strategy
* A programmer should have thorough knowledge of the content and technique of content analysis.
* This strategy should be used as a supplementary device for remedial teaching in the class room.
* It should be used in distance education or continuing education programs where no rigid time table is applied.
* If no at a primary level or higher level of education, this strategy may be useful at secondary level of education where many new subjects are introduced in the curriculum and they create problems in learning.
 
Advantages of Programmed Instruction
* The main emphasis is on individual differences and students’ involvement.
* There is not fixed time interval for learning. Students may learn at their own pace.
* Learning by doing maxim of teaching is followed to involve learners in the learning process.
* Immediate confirmation of the results provides reinforcement to the learners and encourages the learners to proceed further.  
* Feedback is provided to wrong answers, so that learner is able to develop mastery over the content
Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction
* It is very difficult to develop an instructional programme
* Only cognitive objectives can be achieved
* Due to tight schedule of time table, students cannot be left to learn at their own pace. It would be very difficult to learn the content the subject matter in a limited period of time.
* There is no chance for students’ creativity, their responses are highly structured.
* Development of programme is not economical in terms of cost and time
* In absence of the teacher, students may spoil the disciplinary tone of the class, or they will be helpless when any problem arises.
* It cannot be applied at primary level of education or at higher education
 

Conclusion
    Programme instruction represents one of the most effective innovations in the field of teaching learning that proves very helpful in the development of an appropriate self-learning material in a systematic and organized way by making use of five basic principles.
A programme developer can make use of a number of programming styles for the presentation of the learning material before the learners. The most commonly used ones are linear programming and branching programming.